波士顿assignment代写 Growth Of Interest Within Organizations Today Commerce Essay

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2.3.2 Motivation theory

Approaches to motivation are underpinned by motivation theory. Armstrong, (2001) states that the most influential theories are classified as follows:

Instrumentality theory, which states that rewards or punishments (carrots or sticks) serve as the means of ensuring that people behave or act in desired ways.

Content theory, which focuses on the content of motivation. It states that motivation is essentially about taking action to satisfy needs, and identifies the main needs that influence behavior. Needs theory was originated by Maslow (1954), and in his two-factor model, Herzberg (1957) listed needs which he termed 'satisfiers'. Figure 2.3 and 2.4 respectively illustrates the Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor model.

Figure 2.3 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

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Figure 2.3 Herzberg's two-factor model

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Process theory, which focuses on the psychological processes which affect motivation, by reference to the following theories:-

Expectancy theory which was formulated by Vroom (1964) as follows 'Where an individual chooses between alternatives which involves uncertain outcomes, it seems clear that his behavior is affected not only by his preferences among these outcomes but also by the degree to which he believes this outcomes to be possible. Expectancy is defined as a momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome.'

Goal theory as developed by Latham and Locke (1979) states that motivation and performance are higher when individuals are set specific goals, when goals are difficult but accepted, and when there is a feedback on performance.

Equity theory is concerned with the perceptions people have about how they are being treated as compared with others. Equity involves feelings and perceptions and is always a comparative process (Adams, 1965).

2.3.3 Theories about Work

The theories about work consist of the following theories:-

Labour process theory

Newton and Findlay (1996) believe that labour process theory explains how managements have at their disposal a range of mechanisms through which control is exercised: 'Job performance and its assessment is at the heart of the labour process.' Managements, according to Newton and Findlay, are constantly seeking ways to improve the effectiveness of control mechanisms to achieve compliances.

Agency theory indicates that owners and managers have to develop ways of monitoring and controlling the activities of their agents. It is necessary to clear up ambiguities by setting objectives and monitoring performance to ensure that objectives are achieved, Armstrong (1996).

Exchange theory expressed by Armstrong, (2001) explains organizational behavior in terms of the rewards and cost incurred in the interaction between employers and employees. There are four concepts:

Rewards - payoffs that satisfy needs emerging from the interactions between individuals and their organizations.

Costs - fatigue, stress, anxiety, punishments and the value of rewards that people have lost because of lack of opportunity

Outcomes - rewards minus costs: if positive, the interaction yields a 'profit' and this is satisfactory as long as it exceeds the minimum level of expectations.

Level of comparisons - people evaluate the outcome of an interaction against the profit they are foregoing elsewhere.

Human Resource Management vs. Personnel Management

2.4.1 Personnel Management

In the words of David Guest (1989), 'Personnel Management (PM) and HRM: can you tell the difference?' An earlier answer to this was given by Armstrong (1987) as follows 'HRM is regarded by some personnel managers as sets of initials. HRM could indeed be just another name for PM. PM emphasizes on the virtue of treating people as a key resource, the management of which is the direct concern of top management as part of the strategic planning processes of the enterprise.'

Difference between PM and HRM

Characteristics

Personnel Management (PM)

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