3. Literature Review
3.1 International context
Studies have shown that instruction in the mother tongue is beneficial to achievement in other subject areas and second language learning. In regions where the language of the learner is not the national language of the country, bilingual education can make mother tongue instruction possible while providing acquisition of the national language at the same time (UNCESCO, 2003).
International research shows that at least five years of instruction in the first language -but preferably throughout the education system - is required to provide a solid foundation for further studies. A strong foundation in the mother tongue is also needed for second language acquisition and successful transfer of the literacy skills from the first to the second language (UNESCO, 2006).
Teaching basic skills to poor children through language immersion may be detrimental, but bilingual education is a much more effective option. Students in the United States of America receiving instruction in a native language and English at different times of the day were found to make the most dramatic gains in reading performance compared to their English-only peers. This research is pertinent to multilingual low-income countries (World Bank, 2006).
The number of years of instruction in the first language is the most important predictor of reading performance in a second language. It is not important what the first language is, but rather how much cognitive and academic development the student has experienced in it. The higher the students' achievement in the primary language, the faster they will progress in the second language (World Bank, 2006).
3.2 Cambodian context
The terms "ethnic minorities," "indigenous peoples," "hill tribes" and "highlanders" are not synonymous. They are used interchangeably to describe the population groups who reside in remote, difficult-to-access areas within Cambodia. They make a living mostly by subsistence farming and from forest products, and do not speak Khmer, the national language, as a mother tongue (UNCESCO, 2005).
With the promotion of Education For All (EFA), the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) is aware of the need to make education accessible to all. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport is beginning to recognize that bilingual education may be an effective way of meeting the educational needs of Cambodia's ethnic minorities while enabling them to participate more fully in Khmer society (UNESCO, 2007).
To achieve Education For All in minority communities, special strategies such as bilingual education can be used (UNESCO, 2006). Bilingual education encompasses more than the mother tongue as the language of instruction. Curriculum, materials, teachers and, learner-centered methodologies are all elements of the educational process related to the indigenous people's culture in a broad sense. Furthermore the approach has promoted the adoption of inclusive education with learners from highland indigenous groups have long been marginalized and deprived of any opportunity for formal education (UNCESCO, 2005).
Ethnic minority communities have maintained their cultural, linguistic and traditional differences through their remoteness from the majority ethnic communities. Given this remoteness, there has not been the opportunity to support infrastructure and the development and/or refurbishment of school buildings, transport and administrative infrastructure that education may require (UNCESCO, 2005). This compounds the disadvantage of the minority groups even further.
There have been few educational opportunities for indigenous peoples and, consequently, there are few trained personnel who are fluent in ethnic minority languages and Khmer. As Khmer is not the first language of the different highland groups, children are placed at a disadvantage when it is used as the only language of instruction (UNESCO, 2005).Find some figures that describe the participation rates of ethnic minority groups in higher education in Cambodia - it will strengthen this point as well as the Significance of the research
Given that there have been few projects that catered to the specific educational needs of ethnic minorities, there is also a lack of materials that are culturally relevant or readily adaptable for use in terms of language and content (UNESCO, 2005). Indeed, village support for schooling has been lacking, most probably due to the fact that formal school services did not meet the needs of the community, and conflicted with socio-cultural norms in highland villages. Also, teaching methodology and inflexible time-tabling were not suitable. Curriculum and material developed for the ethnic minorities needs to be appropriate to suit the needs of the indigenous communities. If an education project is not based on real, identified needs in the targeted communities, the learners will deem it inappropriate and not useful for their needs (UNESCO, 2005) with subsequent low participation and success rates.
Education for girls faces especially tough obstacles within Cambodia and can be observed often in the form of negative attitudes - by parents, teachers and community members. Discrimination is evident in social norms, language, and submissive stereotypes. Socio-cultural influences work against girls' access to education in the form of early marriages, a heavy domestic workload and low educational expectations (UNESCO, 2005). This is especially true in a traditional society like Cambodia, in which girls' education is less valued than boys' and girls are confined to household chores, let alone girls from the country's minority groups.
